More Important Topics of Cylinder

Today, Carpenters' Hall is open to the public and welcomes over 150,000 world-wide visitors to this wonderful Georgian building.

Set humbly back from Chestnut Street, the Hall has been

continuously owned and operated by The Carpenters' Company of the City and County of Philadelphia, the oldest trade guild in America, since 1770. Today it is also part of Independence National Historical Park.

Born in 1732 into a Virginia planter family, he learned the morals, manners, and body of knowledge requisite for an 18th century Virginia gentleman.

He pursued two intertwined interests: military arts and western expansion. At 16 he helped survey Shenandoah lands for Thomas, Lord Fairfax.

Commissioned a lieutenant colonel in 1754, he fought the first skirmishes of what grew into the French and Indian War. The next year, as an aide to Gen. Edward Braddock, he escaped injury although four bullets ripped his coat and two

horses were shot from under him.

From 1759 to the outbreak of the American Revolution, Washington managed his lands around Mount Vernon and served in the Virginia House of Burgesses. Married to a widow, Martha Dandridge Custis, he devoted himself to a busy and happy life.

But like his fellow planters, Washington felt himself exploited by British merchants and hampered by British regulations. As the quarrel with the mother country grew acute, he moderately but firmly voiced his resistance to the restrictions.

Adams was born in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1735. A Harvard-educated lawyer, he early became identified with the patriot cause; a delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses, he led in the movement for independence.

During the Revolutionary War he served in France and Holland in diplomatic roles, and helped negotiate the treaty of peace. From 1785 to 1788 he was minister to the Court of St. James's, returning to be elected Vice President under

George Washington.

Adams' two terms as Vice President were frustrating experiences for a man of his vigor, intellect, and vanity. He complained to his wife Abigail, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived."

MORRIS, Robert, (father of Thomas Morris [1771-1849]), a Delegate and a Senator from Pennsylvania; born in Liverpool, England, January 20, 1734; immigrated to the United States in 1747 and settled in Oxford, Md.; attended school in Philadelphia; became a merchant in Philadelphia in 1748; signed the non-importation agreement of 1765;

member of the Pennsylvania Council of Safety 1775; Member of the Continental Congress 1775-1778; signer of the Declaration of Independence; settled upon the Manheim estate; member, State assembly 1778-1781;

national superintendent of finance 1781-1784; established the Bank of North America; member, State assembly 1785-1787; delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787; elected to the United States Senate and served from March

4, 1789, to March 3, 1795; declined to be a candidate for renomination; declined the position of Secretary of the Treasury in the Cabinet of President George Washington;

known as the “financier of the American Revolution” and one of the richest men in America, Morris became involved in unsuccessful land speculations, which caused him to be imprisoned for debt from 1798 to 1801; died in Philadelphia, Pa., May 8, 1806; interment in the family vault of William White in the churchyard of Christ Church.

This powerful advocate of liberty was born in 1743 in Albermarle County, Virginia, inheriting from his father, a planter and surveyor, some 5,000 acres of land, and from his mother, a Randolph, high social standing.

He studied at the College of William and Mary, then read law. In 1772 he married Martha Wayles Skelton, a widow, and took her to live in his partly constructed mountaintop home, Monticello.

Freckled and sandy-haired, rather tall and awkward, Jefferson was eloquent as a correspondent, but he was no public speaker. In the Virginia House of Burgesses and the Continental Congress, he contributed his pen rather than his voice to the patriot cause.

As the "silent member" of the Congress, Jefferson, at 33, drafted the Declaration of Independence. In years following he labored to make its words a reality in Virginia. Most notably, he wrote a bill establishing religious freedom, enacted in 1786.

Jefferson succeeded Benjamin Franklin as minister to France in 1785. His sympathy for the French Revolution led him into conflict with Alexander Hamilton when Jefferson was Secretary of State in President Washington's Cabinet. He resigned in 1793.

Sharp political conflict developed, and two separate parties, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, began to form. Jefferson gradually assumed leadership of the Republicans, who sympathized with the revolutionary cause in France. Attacking Federalist policies, he opposed a strong centralized Government and championed the rights of states.

As a reluctant candidate for President in 1796, Jefferson came within three votes of election. Through a flaw in the Constitution, he became Vice President, although an opponent of President Adams.

In 1800 the defect caused a more serious problem. Republican electors, attempting to name both a President and a Vice President from their own party, cast a tie vote between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The House of Representatives settled the tie. Hamilton, disliking both Jefferson and Burr, nevertheless urged Jefferson's election.

When Jefferson assumed the Presidency, the crisis in France had passed. He slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated the tax on whiskey so unpopular in the West, yet reduced the national debt by a third.

He also sent a naval squadron to fight the Barbary pirates, who were harassing American commerce in the Mediterranean. Further, although the Constitution made no provision for the acquisition of new land, Jefferson suppressed his qualms over constitutionality when he had the opportunity to acquire the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon in 1803.

During Jefferson's second term, he was increasingly preoccupied with keeping the Nation from involvement in the Napoleonic wars, though both England and France interfered with the neutral rights of American merchantmen. Jefferson's attempted solution, an embargo upon American shipping, worked badly and was unpopular.

Jefferson retired to Monticello to ponder such projects as his grand designs for the University of Virginia. A French nobleman observed that he had placed his house and his mind "on an elevated situation, from which he might contemplate the universe."

He died on July 4, 1826.

Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was an American politician, statesman, journalist, lawyer, and soldier.

One of the United States' most prominent and brilliant early constitutional lawyers, he was an influential delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention and the principal author of the Federalist Papers, which successfully defended the U.S. Constitution to skeptical New Yorkers.

He also put the new United States of America onto a sound economic footing as its first and most influential Secretary of the Treasury, establishing the First Bank of the United States, public credit and the foundations for American capitalism and stock and commodity exchanges. Alexander

Hamilton died in a duel with fellow politician Aaron Burr.

Alexander Hamilton is often regarded as the founding father who advocated the principles of a strong centralized federal government that would become the hallmark of the early Republic.

This was due to his support of strong national defense, strong business institutions, laissez-faire capitalism, and a commitment to economic growth.

His Federalist Party was Hamilton's means of achieving Federalist principles including his support for a broad interpretation of the United States Constitution and a strong federal government. He outlined these principles in his most notable work the Federalist Papers.

Soldier, born in Norwich, Connecticut, 14 Jan., 1741; died in London, England, 14 June, 1801. His ancestor, William Arnold (born in Leamington, Warwickshire, in 1587), came to Providence in 1636, and was associated with Roger Williams as one of the fifty-four proprietors in the first settlement of Rhode island.

His son Benedict moved to Newport, and was governor of the colony from 1663 to 1666, 1669 to 1672, 1677 to 1678, when he died.

His son Benedict was a member of the assembly in 1695. His son Benedict, third of that name, moved to Norwich in 1730; was cooper, ship-owner, and sea-captain, town

surveyor, collector, assessor, and selectman. He married, 8 Nov., 1733, Hannah, daughter of John Waterman, widow of Absalom King. Of their six children, only Benedict and Hannah lived to grow up. Benedict received a respectable school education, including some knowledge of Latin.

He was romantic and adventurous, excessively proud and sensitive, governed rather by impulse than by principle. He was noted for physical strength and beauty, as well as for bravery. He possessed immense capacity both for good and for evil, and circumstances developed him in both directions.

At the age of fifteen he ran away from home and enlisted in the Connecticut army, marching to Albany and Lake George to resist the French invasion; but, getting weary of discipline, he deserted and made his way home alone through the wilderness.

Josiah intended for Benjamin to enter into the clergy. However, Josiah could only afford to send his son to school for one year and clergymen needed years of schooling.

But, as young Benjamin loved to read he had him apprenticed to his brother James, who was a printer. After helping James compose pamphlets and set type which was

grueling work, 12-year-old Benjamin would sell their products in the streets.

Horatio Gates was low born in England. Somehow he earned the patronage of nobles which gave him a commission in the British Army in 1745.

He served in Germany before moving to Canada where he married in 1754. He was part of the doomed expedition of Braddock where he served with Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, and George Washington.

He then served in various posts during the French and Indian War. Following the war, he struggled to find a suitable commission until he finally resigned and settled in Virginia in 1772. He soon became involved in the Rebel cause with old friend Charles Lee.

He and his wife enjoyed high society in New York City on her inheritance until his death in 1806.

Charles Lee was one of the most talented American military leaders in the War for Independence, but his erratic performance and loutish behavior forever tarnished his considerable contributions.

Lee was born in England to Irish parents. His father was a colonel in the British army and enrolled his son in a Swiss military school. Young Lee was commissioned as an ensign in the army at age 12. Three years later he entered regular service in his father’s regiment.

Combatants: British troops of the Boston garrison against troops of the American Continental Army.

Generals: Major General Howe against General Artemas Ward and General Israel Putnam

Size of the armies: 2,400 British troops against 1,500 Americans.

With the outbreak of the war General Gage, the British commander in chief, found himself blockaded in Boston by the American Continental Army, occupying the hills to the West of the city. Gage resolved to seize the Charlestown peninsula across the harbour. Before he could act, on the night of 16th June 1775 around 1,500 American troops of the Massachusetts regiments and Putnam’s Connecticut regiment occupied Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill on the peninsula.

The American troops began to build a redoubt on Breed’s Hill. The fortification was complete by the morning, after a night of frenzied work. The presence of the Americans on the peninsula was observed by His Majesty’s Ship Lively which opened fire on them.

Plans were hurriedly put in motion by the British to attack the Americans and drive them from their position. Major General Howe, one of the three generals sent from Britain to assist General Gage, was given the command. While the preparations were in train the Americans extended their fortifications from the redoubt to the sea shore, to prevent a flank attack. More American troops gathered on Bunker Hill but few of them could be persuaded to move to the forward positions on Breed’s Hill.

Howe landed with his force on the southern shore of the peninsular and directed the light infantry to attack the section of American line at the sea shore. Gage and Howe would have been well advised to have landed in the rear of the American position.. It is likely that the British senior officers discounted the ability of the American troops to resist a frontal attack and overestimated the ability of their own troops to make one.

The light infantry column was repelled with heavy casualties. General Howe now launched a frontal assault on the redoubt with the main body of his troops.

This attack was driven back with heavy loss, in spite of an American shortage of ammunition. During the attack the British left wing suffered from the fire of Americans in the town of Charlestown and the town was set ablaze.

The attacks should have been preceded by a bombardment from the field artillery but it was found that the 6 pounder guns had been supplied with 12 pounder balls.

A second attack was launched along the length of the American entrenchments and was again driven back with heavy loss.

A final attack was made, concentrating on the redoubt and centre of the American position. The American ammunition was all but exhausted and this final assault carried the redoubt, forcing the Americans to retreat and leave the peninsula. They were not vigorously pursued.

Casualties: The British suffered some 1,150 killed and wounded or nearly half of the force engaged. The American casualties were estimated at 450 killed and wounded.

Follow-up: The British took over the Bunker and Breed’s Hill positions and fortified them, holding them until they evacuated Boston at the end of the year. The battle was the first action for the Continental Army and showed how much work there was to be done in moulding an effective army.

While most of the soldiers in the entrenched works fought tenaciously, the intended reinforcements on Bunker Hill refused to advance to the support of their comrades and there was the greatest confusion between the officers as to precedence.

Forewarned by Paul Revere, American militiamen fought 800 British troops on April 19th, 1775.

The battle broke out at Concord. Seventy-three British soldiers were killed and over 200 were wounded. The Americans lost 49 soldiers and suffered 39 wounded.

This marked the beginning to Revolutionary War.

Generals: The Governor of Canada, Guy Carleton and Colonel Allen Maclean commanded the British forces and Major General Benedict Arnold and Brigadier Richard Montgomery commanded the American troops. Montgomery was a half pay British officer.

Size of the armies: Around 1,200 on each side. Uniforms,

arms and equipment: Each side wore whatever clothing was available to them, other than the small party of British recruits who may have been in uniform. Weapons were muskets and a few bayonets. The British had the benefit of the heavy guns on the city’s fortifications.

Winner: The British and Canadian garrison drove off the American attack and ended the threat to the British control of Canada. British Regiments: It is unknown which regiments were represented in the garrison.

Account: While General Washington with the Continental Army was blockading Boston, Montgomery led an attack up the Lake Champlain route into Canada while Arnold took his force across country through Maine. The purpose of the invasion of Canada was in part to bring the Canadian population into the war on the American side.

Fort St John and Montreal were captured by the Americans. In late October 1775 Arnold arrived on Point Levis across the St Lawrence from Quebec , having lost a substantial part of his force on the punishing journey from New England. Maclean, hearing of Arnold’s arrival, force marched his recruits from Sorel to Quebec , being joined later by Carleton.

On 13th November 1775 Arnold took his force across the St Lawrence, climbed onto the Plains of Abraham and summoned the garrison to surrender or come out and fight. The garrison did neither. Arnold launched a night attack that was beaten back.

On 31st December 1775, with the addition of Montgomery’s troops, Arnold launched night attacks at either end of the city in a snowstorm. The garrison alerted by premature feint attacks on other parts of the city perimeter. Montgomery’s assault was repelled with heavy grapeshot and Montgomery was killed. Arnold’s attack penetrated the city wall but he was wounded. Maclean arrived from dealing with Montgomery’s assault and led the counter attack.

The American troops who had penetrated the walls were captured and the assault was driven off.

Generals: General George Washington against Colonel Rahl.

Size of the armies:

2,400 American troops with 18 guns. 1,400 Hessians with 6 light guns.

Uniforms, arms and equipment: The British 16th Ligh Dragoons wore red coats and leather crested helmets. The German infantry wore blue coats and retained the Prussian style grenadier mitre with brass front plate.

The Americans dressed as best they could. Increasingly as the war progressed regular infantry regiments of the Continental Army wore blue uniform coats but the militia continued in rough clothing. Both sides were armed with muskets and guns. The Pennsylvania regiments carried long, small calibre, rifled weapons.

Winner: The battle was a resounding physical and moral victory for Washington and his American troops.

British Regiments:

Only a troop of 16th Light Dragoons who left the town at the onset of the fighting.

Account:

After being driven out of New York by the British and forced to retreat to the West bank of the Delaware during the late summer of 1776, the American cause was at a low ebb. In the harsh winter Washington was faced with the annual crisis of the expiry of the Continental Army’s period of enlistment.

He resolved to attack the Hessian position at Trenton on the extreme southern end of the over extended British line along the Delaware, before his army dispersed.

Washington’s plan was to cross the Delaware at three points with a force commanded by Lt Col Cadwallader with a Rhode Island regiment, some Pennsylvanians, Delaware militia and two guns, a second force under Brigadier Ewing of militia and the third commanded by himself which would cross the river above Trenton and attack the Hessian garrison in the town. Washington had as his subordinates, Major Generals Nathaniel Greene and John Sullivan.

Washington had some 2,400 men from Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York.

The force paraded in the afternoon and set off for the Delaware where they embarked in a flotilla of the characteristic Delaware river boats.

It was a cold dark night and the river was running with flowing ice. At about 11pm a heavy snow and sleet storm broke. Washington’s force did not reach the east bank until around 3am. His soldiers were badly clothed and many did not have shoes.

Washington’s men then marched to Trenton, some of the men leaving traces of blood on the snow.

The German garrison comprised the regiments of Rahl, Knyphausen and Lossberg, with Hessian jagers and a troop of the British 16th Light Dragoons.

The Hessian commander Colonel Rahl had been ordered to construct defence works around the town but had not troubled to do so. On the night before the attack Rahl was at dinner when he was brought information that the Americans were approaching. He ignored the message which was found in his pocket after his death.

The main American force under Washington entered Trenton from the North-West. Sullivan marched around the town and attacked from the South. The remainder took a position to the North East cutting off the Hessians’ retreat.

One of the American artillery sections was commanded by Captain Alexander Hamilton. Captain William Washington and Lieutenant James Monroe were wounded in the battle, the only American officer casualties.

The Hessians attempted to form in the town but were under artillery fire and attack from front and rear. The Americans occupied the houses and shot down the German gunners and foot soldiers during which Colonel Rahl was fatally wounded. Rahl’s troops retreated to an orchard in the South East of the town where they surrendered.

Ewing and Cadwallader failed to make the river crossing and took no part in the attack.

Casualties: The Americans suffered 4 wounded casualties. It is said that in addition two American soldiers froze to death. The Hessians suffered 20 killed and around 100 wounded. 1,000 were captured.

Independence Hall in Philadelphia can be considered the birthplace of the United States of America, as it was here that the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, the Articles of Confederation uniting the thirteen (13) colonies were ratified in 1781 and the Constitution setting out the nations's basic laws was adopted in 1787.

The building was designed by Andrew Hamilton to house the Assembly of the Commonwealth (colony) of Pennsylvania.

Finished in 1753, it is a modest brick structure with a steeple that was intended to hold a 2,080 pound bell. The bell, however, has cracked twice and stands silently on the ground in a special shelter (a reproduction now hangs in

the steeple). Independence Hall is important not for its architectural design but for the documents drafted and debated here that formed the democracy of the United States.

Document in American history used by the 13 British North American colonies to proclaim their independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was adopted in final form on July 4, 1776.

It can be divided into three parts: a statement of principle concerning the rights of man and the legitimacy of revolution, a list of specific grievances against England’s King George III, and a formal claim of independence.

The document transformed the colonists’ struggle with Great Britain from a defense of their rights as Englishmen to a revolution aimed at overthrowing the existing form of government.

It did not establish a structure of government and should not be confused with either the Articles of Confederation or the Constitution of the United States.

For the American colonists, the declaration was an announcement to the rest of the world that the colonies were independent from Great Britain; it also provided a rationale for this action.

The goal was to solidify internal support for their struggle and to encourage external assistance from European powers such as France.

On September 19, 1777 the Royal army advanced upon the American camp in three separate columns within the present day towns of Stillwater and Saratoga.

Two of them headed through the heavy forests covering the region; the third, composed of German troops, marched down the river road. American scouts detected Burgoyne's army in motion and notified Gates, who ordered Col. Daniel

Morgan's corps of Virginia riflemen to track the British march. About 12:30 p.m., some of Morgan's men brushed with the advance guard of Burgoyne's center column in a clearing known as the Freeman Farm, about a mile north of the American camp.

The general battle that followed swayed back and forth over the farm for more than three hours. Then, as the British lines began to waver in the face of the deadly fire of the numerically superior Americans, German reinforcements arrived from the river road.

Hurling them against the American right, Burgoyne steadied the wavering British line and gradually forced the Americans to withdraw. Except for this timely arrival and the near exhaustion of the Americans' ammunition, Burgoyne might have been defeated that day. Though he held the immediate field of battle, Burgoyne had been stopped about a mile north of the American line with his army roughly treated.

Shaken by his "victory," the British commander ordered his troops to entrench in the vicinity of the Freeman Farm and await support from Clinton, who was supposedly preparing to move north toward Albany from New York City.

For nearly three weeks he waited but Clinton did not come. By now Burgoyne's situation was critical. Faced by a growing American army without hope of help from the south, and with supplies rapidly diminishing, the British army became weaker with each passing day. Burgoyne had to choose between advancing or retreating.

He decided to risk a second engagement, and on October 7 ordered a reconnaissance-in-force to test the American left flank. Ably led and supported by eight cannon, a force of 1,500 men moved out of the British camp. After marching southwesterly about three-quarters of a mile, the troops deployed in a clearing on the Barber Farm.

Most of the British front faced an open field, but both flanks rested in woods, thus exposing them to surprise attack. By now the Americans knew that Burgoyne's army was again on the move and at about 3 p.m. attacked in three columns under Colonel Morgan, Gen. Ebenezer Learned, and Gen. Enoch Poor.

Repeatedly the British line was broken, then rallied, and both flanks were severely punished and driven back. Gen. Simon Fraser, who commanded the British right, was mortally wounded as he rode among his men to encourage them to make a stand and cover the developing withdrawal.

Before the enemy's flanks could be rallied, Gen. Benedict Arnold -who had been relieved of command after a quarrel with Gates- rode onto the field and led Learned's brigade against the German troops holding the British center. Under tremendous pressure from all sides, the Germans joined a general withdrawal into the fortifications on the Freeman Farm. Within an hour after the opening clash, Burgoyne lost eight cannon and more than 400 officers and men.

Flushed with success, the Americans believed that victory was near. Arnold led one column in a series of savage attacks on the Balcarres Redoubt, a powerful British fieldwork on the Freeman Farm. After failing repeatedly to carry this position, Arnold wheeled his horse and, dashing through the crossfire of both armies, spurred northwest to the Breymann Redoubt.

Arriving just as American troops began to assault the fortification, he joined in the final surge that overwhelmed the German soldiers defending the work. Upon entering the redoubt, he was wounded in the leg. Had he died there, posterity would have known few names brighter than that of Benedict Arnold. Darkness ended the day's fighting and saved Burgoyne's army from immediate disaster.

That night the British commander left his campfires burning and withdrew his troops behind the Great Redoubt, which protected the high ground and river flats at the northeast corner of the battlefield. The next night, October 8, after burying General Fraser in the redoubt, the British began their retreat northward. They had suffered 1,000 casualties in the fighting of the past three weeks; American losses numbered less than 500.

After a miserable march in mud and rain, Burgoyne's troops took refuge in a fortified camp on the heights of Saratoga. There, an American force that had grown to nearly 20,000 men surrounded the exhausted British army. Faced with such overwhelming numbers, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17, 1777.

By the terms of the Convention of Saratoga, Burgoyne's depleted army, some 6,000 men, marched out of its camp "with the Honors of War" and stacked its weapons along the west bank of the Hudson River. Thus was gained one of the most decisive victories in American and world history.

When Washington arrived at nearby Englishtown on that morning of June 28, he ordered his generals to attack the British. General Charles Lee, who had been opposed to an all-out engagement with the British, was reluctant to attack, but he and his advance force were drawn into battle

by British forces. In the confusion of battle, Lee ordered his troops to retreat. Angered, General Washington, directed Lee and "Mad" Anthony Wayne to fight a delaying action, while he took command of the Continental troops and organized them in a defensive position.

For the rest of the day, the two armies clashed in the oppressive heat, finally withdrawing after 5 o' clock from exhaustion. Washington planned to resume the battle on the next day, but General Clinton and his men slipped away,

undetected by Washington's army, shortly after midnight. Neither side emerged a clear winner of the battle, but the American forces had proved themselves as a professional fighting force.

Other American heroes also were present at Monmouth. LaFayette and "Mad" Anthony Wayne took part in the battle. Molly Hayes, known today as Molly Pitcher, was at Freehold that unbearably hot day bringing water to her husband and his fellow gunners as they fired their cannon.

When she returned from fetching water, she discovered that her husband had fallen in battle. She immediately took his place, serving as a gunner for the remainder of the battle. Legend says that she was presented to General Washington after the battle.

Generals: Major General Lord Cornwallis against Major General Horatio Gates

In January 1780 Major General Clinton who had taken over as British commander-in-chief in America from Major General Howe took a force from New York and captured Charleston, the provincial capital of South Carolina. Storms caused substantial loss of guns and horses on the journey.

Clinton returned to New York leaving to Major General Cornwallis the task of capturing the rest of South Carolina. On 18th May Cornwallis sent Colonel Banastre Tarleton with foot and light dragoons in pursuit of an American force commanded by Colonel Burford. Tarleton overtook Burford at Camden near the border with North Carolina and

defeated him.

Cornwallis arrived at Camden which over the next few months became an important base of operations for the British and in which supplies were assembled.

In July an American army under Major General Horatio Gates had marched from the North and was threatening the British in South Carolina.

The British were commanded at Camden by Lord Rawdon, Cornwallis having returned to Charleston. Rawdon advanced from Camden to meet the Americans and took a position on a creek to the North-East of the town. On Gates’ approach Rawdon fell back to Camden.

On 14th August Cornwallis joined his troops in Camden with the determination to attack Gates. He made a night advance which collided with the Americans who were also advancing to make an assault.

The battlefield lay between two swamps which narrowed the front and secured the flanks. Cornwallis formed his army in two brigades, Colonel Webster on the right with the companies of Light Infantry, the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the 33rd Foot and on the left Lord Rawdon on the left with the Irish Volunteers, Tarleton’s infantry and some loyalist provincial units. Two battalions of Fraser’s 71st Highlanders provided a reserve.

Gates drew up his army with the regiments of the Continental Army on the right under Gist, Kalb’s 2nd Maryland and a Delaware regiment, his centre under Caswell of North Carolina militia and his right under Stevens of Virginia militia. Smallwood commanded the reserve of the 1st Maryland.

Gates ordered his left wing of militia to attack the opposing British units. As they began to move forward the British launched a counter attack along the whole line.

Ill-trained and largely without bayonets with which to conduct close quarter fighting, the American militia retreated off the field leaving Webster’s regiments to turn on the flank of the American right wing where the Continental units were putting up a stiff fight and continued to do so for some time. Tarleton’s cavalry finally attacked the American right wing in the rear causing the units to break. The British cavalry pursued the retreating Americans for some twenty miles.

Gates, the American commander appears to have left the battlefield with the first of the militia and ridden a considerable distance before drawing rein, leaving his subordinate commanders to fight on with the right flank. His reputation was destroyed. Baron Von Kalb, a German in the American service, particularly distinguished himself before being killed.

The Battle of Cowpens1, January 17, 1781, took place in the latter part of the Southern Campaign of the American Revolution and of the Revolution itself.

It became known as the turning point of the war in the South, part of a chain of events leading to Patriot victory at Yorktown.

The Cowpens victory was one over a crack British regular army3 and brought together strong armies and leaders who made their mark on history.

No reinforcements, the continuous bombardment by French and Americans, and a loss of two key redoubts or hilltop fortifications to a night attack led by Washington's aide de-Camp, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton, led Cornwallis to see there was little hope left for his army. He

surrenderd to Washington on October 19, 1781. Although is was not yet clear, the war was as good as over.

The treaty is commonly referred to as the Second Treaty of

Paris, the first being the Treaty of Paris of 1763. Several other treaties have also been made under this name.

In the federal council and in other intertribal assemblies the Mohawk sit with the tribal phratry, which is formally called the "Three Elder Brothers" and of which the other members are the Seneca and the Onondaga.

Like the Oneida, the Mohawk have only 3 clans, namely, the Bear, the Wolf, and the Turtle. The tribe is represented in the federal council by 9 chiefs of the rank of roianer (see Chiefs), being 3 from every clan.

These chiefships were known by specific names, which were conferred with the office. These official titles are Tekarihoken, Haienhwatha, and Satekarihwate, of the first group; Orenrehkowa, Deionhehkon, and Sharenhowanen, of

the second group; and Dehennakarine, Rastawenserontha, and Shoskoharowanen, of the third group. The first two groups or clans formed an intratribal phratry, while the last, or Bear clan group, was the other phratry.

The people at all times assembled by phratries, and each phratry occupied aside of the council fire opposite that occupied by the other phratry. The second title in the foregoing list has been Anglicized into Hiawatha

From the Jesuit Relation for 1660 it is learned that the Mohawk, during a period of 60 years, had been many times both at the top and the bottom of the ladder of success; that, being insolent and warlike, they had attacked the Abnaki and their congeners at the east, the Conestoga at the south, the Hurons at the west and north, and the Algonquian tribes at the north; that at the close of the 16th century the Algonkin had so reduced them that there appeared to be none left, but that the remainder increased so rapidly that in a few years they in turn had overthrown the Algonkin.

This success did not last long. The Conestoga waged war against them so vigorously for 10 years that for the second time the Mohawk were overthrown so completely that they appeared to be extinct. About this time (?1614) the Dutch arrived in their country, and, being attracted by their beaver skins, they furnished the Mohawk and their congeners with firearms, in order that the pelts might be obtained in greater abundance.

The purpose of the Dutch was admirably served, but the possession of firearms by the Mohawk and their confederates rendered it easy for them to conquer their adversaries, whom they routed and filled with terror not alone by the deadly effect but even by the there sound of these weapons, which hitherto had been unknown. Thenceforth the Mohawk and their confederates became formidable adversaries and were victorious most everywhere, so that by 1660 the conquests of the Iroquois confederates, although they were not numerous, extended over nearly 600 leagues of territory.

The Mohawk at that time numbered not more than 500 warriors and dwelt in 4 or 5 wretched villages. The accounts of Mohawk migrations previous to the historical period are largely conjectural. Some writers do not clearly differentiate between the Mohawk and the Huron tribes at the north and west and from their own confederates as a whole. Besides fragmentary and untrustworthy traditions little that is definite is known regarding the migratory movements of the Mohawk.

In 1603, Champlain, while at Tadousac, heard of the Mohawk and their country. On July 30, 1609, he encountered on the lake to which he gave his own name a party of nearly 200 Iroquois warriors, under 3 chiefs. In a skirmish in which he shot two of the chiefs dead and wounded the third, he defeated this party, which was most probably largely Mohawk.

Dismayed by the firearms of the Frenchman, whom they now met for the first time, the Indians fled. The Iroquois of this party wore arrow-proof armor and had both stone and iron hatchets, the latter having been obtained in trade.

The fact that in Capt. Hendricksen's report to the States General, Aug. 18, 1616, he says that he had "bought from the inhabitants, the Minquaes [Conestoga], 3 persons, being people belonging to this company," who were "employed in the service of the Mohawks and Machicans," giving, he says, for them, in exchange, "kettles, beads, and merchandise," shows how extensively the inland trade was carried on between the Dutch and the Mohawk.

The latter were at war with the Mohegan and other New England tribes with only intermittent periods of peace.

In 1623 a Mohegan fort stood opposite Castle island. in the Hudson and was "built against their enemies, the Maquaes, a powerful people." In 1626 the Dutch commander of Ft Orange (Albany), and 6 of his men, joined the Mohegan in an expedition to invade the Mohawk country. They were met a league from the fort by a party of Mohawk armed only with bows and arrows, and were defeated, the Dutch commander and 3 of his men being killed, and of whom one, probably the commander, was cooked and eaten by the :Mohawk.

This intermittent warfare continued until the Mohegan were finally forced to withdraw from the upper waters of the Hudson. They did not however relinquish their territorial rights to their native adversaries, and so in 1630 they began to sell their lands to the Dutch.

The deed to the Manor of Renssalaerwyck, which extended w. of the river two days' journey, and was mainly on the F. side of the river, was dated in the year named. In 1637 Kilian Van Renssalaer bought more land on the east side. Subsequently the Mohegan became the friends and allies of the Mohawk, their former adversaries.

In 1641 Ahatsistari, a noted Huron chief, with only 50 companions, attacked and defeated 300 Iroquois, largely Mohawk, taking some prisoners. In the preceding summer he had attacked on Lake Ontario a number of large canoes manned by Iroquois, probably chiefly Mohawk, and defeated then, after sinking several canoes and killing a number of their crews.

In 1642, 11 Huron canoes were attacked on Ottawa river by, Mohawk and Oneida warriors abort 100 miles above Montreal. In the same year the Mohawk captured Father Isaac Jogues, two French companions, and some Huron allies. They took the Frenchmen to their villages, where they caused them to undergo the most cruel tortures. Jogues, by the aid of the Dutch, escaped in the following year; but in 1646 he went to the Mohawk to attempt to convert them and to confirm the peace which had been made with them.

On May 16, 1646, Father Jogues went to the Mohawk as an envoy and returned to Three Rivers in July in good health. In September he again started for the Mohawk country to establish a mission there; but, owing to the prevalence of an epidemic among the Mohawk, and to the failure of their crops, they accused Father Jogues of "having concealed certain charms in a small coffer, which he had left with his host as a pledge of his return," which caused them thus to be afflicted.

So upon his arrival in their village for the third time, he and his companion, a young Frenchman, were seized, stripped, and threatened with death. Father Jogues had been adopted by the Wolf clan of the Mohawk, hence this clan, with that of the Turtle, which with the Wolf formed a phratry or brotherhood, tried to save the lives of the Frenchmen.

But the Bear clan, which formed a phratry by itself, and being only cousins to the others, of one of which Father Jogues was a member, had determined on his death as a sorcerer. On Oct. 17, 1646, the unfortunates were told that they would be killed, but not burned, the next day. On the evening of the 18th Fattier Jogues was invited to a supper in a Bear lodge.

Having accepted the invitation, he went there, and while entering the lodge a man concealed behind the door struck him down with an ax. He was beheaded, his head elevated on the palisade, and his body thrown into the river. The next morning Jogues' companion suffered a similar fate. Fattier Jogues left an account of a Mohawk sacrifice to the god Aireskoi (i. e., Jregwens' gwa', ' the Master or God of War').

While speaking of the cruelties exercised by the Mohawk toward their prisoners, and specifically toward 3 women, he said: "One of them (a thing riot hitherto done) was burned all over her body, and afterwards thrown into a huge pyre."

And that "at every burn which they caused, by applying lighted torches to her body, an old man, in a loud voice, exclaimed, 'Daimon, Aireskoi, we offer thee this victim, whom we burn for thee, that thou mayest be filled with her flesh and render us ever anew victorious over our enemies.' Her body was cut up, sent to the various villages, and devoured."

Megapolensis (1644), a contemporary of Fattier Jogues, says that when the Mohawk were unfortunate in war they would kill, cut up, and roast a bear, and then make an offering of it to this war god with the accompanying prayer: "Oh, great and mighty Aireskuoni, we know that we have offended against thee, in as much as we have not killed and eaten our captive enemies-forgive us this.

We promise that we will kill and eat all the captives we shall hereafter take as certainly as we have killed and now eat this bear." he adds: "Finally, they roast their prisoners dead before a slow fire for some days and then eat them up. The common people eat the arms, buttocks, and trunk, but the chiefs eat the head and the heart."

The Jesuit Relation for 1646 says that, properly speaking, the French had at that time peace with only the Mohawk, who were their near neighbors and who gave then the most trouble, and that the Mohegan (Mahingaus or Mahiuganak), who had had firm alliances with the Algonkin allies of the French, were then already conquered by the Mohawk, with whom they formed a defensive and offensive alliance; that during this year some Sokoki (Assok8ekik) murdered some Algonkin, whereupon the latter determined, under a misapprehension, to massacre some Mohawk, who were then among then, and the French.

But, fortunately, it was discovered from the testimony of two wounded persons, who had escaped, that the murderers spoke a language quite different from that of the Iroquois tongues, and suspicion was at once removed from the Mohawk, who then hunted freely in the immediate vicinity of the Algonkin north of the St Lawrence, where these hitherto implacable enemies frequently meet on the best of terms. At this time the Mohawk refused Sokoki ambassadors a new compact to wage war on the Algonkin.

The introduction of firearms by the Dutch among the Mohawk, who were among the first of their region to procure them, marked an important era in their history, for it enabled them and the cognate Iroquois tribes to subjugate the Delawares and Munsee, and thus to begin a career of conquest that carried their war parties to the Mississippi and to the shores of Hudson bay.

The Mohawk villages were in the valley of Mohawk river, N. Y., from the vicinity of Schenectady nearly to Utica, and their territory extended north to the St Lawrence and south to the watershed of Schoharie creek and the east branch of the Susquehanna. On the east their territories adjoined those of the Mahican, who held Hudson river.

Front their position on the east frontier of the Iroquois confederation the Mohawk were among the most prominent of the Iroquoian tribes in the early Indian wars and in official negotiations with the colonies, so that their name was frequently used by the tribes of New England and by the whites as a synonym for the confederation.

Owing to their position they also suffered much more than their confederates in some of the Indian and French wars. Their 7 villages of 1644 were reduced to 5 in 1677. At the beginning of the Revolution the Mohawk took the side of the British, and at its conclusion the larger portion of them, under Brant and Johnson, removed to Canada, where they have since resided on lands granted to them by the British government. In 1777 the Oneida expelled the remainder of the tribe and burned their villages.

In 1650 the Mohawk had an estimated population of 5,000, which was probably more than their actual number; for 10 years later they were estimated at only 2,500. Thence forward they underwent a rapid decline, caused by their wars with the Mahican, Conestoga, and other tribes, and with the French, and also by the removal of a large part of the tribe to Caughnawaga and other mission villages.

The later estimates of their population have been: 1,500 in 1677 (an alleged decrease of 3,500 in 27 years), 400 in 1736 (an alleged decrease of 1,100 in 36 years), 500 in 1741, 800 in 1765, 500 in 1778, 1,500 in 1783, and about 1,200 in 1851. These estimates are evidently little better than vague guesses.

In 1884 they were on three reservations in Ontario: 965 at the Bay of Quinté near the east end of Lake Ontario, the settlement at Gibson, and the reserve of the Six Nations on Grand river. Besides these there are a few individuals scattered among the different Iroquois tribes in the United States. In 1906 the Bay of Quinté, settlement contained 1,320; there were 140 (including ''Algongnins") at Watha, the former Gibson band which was removed earlier from Oka; and the Six Nations included an indeterminate number.

The Mohawk participated in the following treaties with the United States:

Ft Stanwix, N. Y., Oct. 22, 1784, being a treaty of peace between the United States and the Six Nations and defining their boundaries; supplemented by treaty of

Ft Harmar, O., Jan. 9, 1789.

Konondaigua (Canandaigua), N. Y., Nov. 11, 1794, establishing peace relations with the Six Nations and agreeing to certain reservations and boundaries.

Albany N. Y, Mar. 29, 1797, by which the United States sanctioned the cession by the Mohawk to the state of New York of all their lands therein.

English galleon that transported the first pilgrims (102 pilgrims according to historical information) at the beginning of the XVIIth century (1620) and after 77 days of hard navigation on December 21 they did foot in Cape Cod Bay where they founded the first establishment of Anglo-Saxon speech of the new world: at present Plymouth Massachusetts the United States.

According to information gathered from pages that allude historical about this trip some crew members of the Mayflower are:

Captain Christopher Jones, Master's Mate John Clarke, second Master's Mate Robert Coppin, Giles Heale, John Alden, Mr. Ely, William Trevore, Master Leaver, Master Williamson, John o Thomas Parker, etc.

The Pilgrims who came to America in 1620, were mainly a group of Christians called Separatists.

Because of the persecution of Separatists by the Church-State system of government in England, one group of Separatists had moved to the United States of the Netherlands in 1608, but became dissatisfied with conditions there and decided their hope lay in the new land of America.

In 1620, on July 12th (O.S. = Old Style), they left the Netherlands with 35 members of their congregation and their leaders William Bradford and William Brewster aboard the ship Speedwell, and at Southhampton, joined up with other Englishmen who had hopes of bettering their lives in the new world.

The London Company granted them the right to establish a settlement in Virginia.

A total of about 120 passengers boarded both the Speedwell and the chartered vessel Mayflower, and left Southampton on August 5th (O.S.), but had to return to England twice because of dangerous leaks on the Speedwell.

Finally, at the English port of Plymouth, late in the sailing season, after much disputing about what they should do, some of the passengers from the Speedwell were transferred to the Mayflower, and on September 6th (O.S.), the Pilgrims, 102 men, women, and children, (only 37 [or 45] of whom were from the original Separatist congregation,) left England on their historic voyage across the turbulent ocean. During the voyage, the Mayflower was badly rattled by storms with many leaks in the upper parts of the ship. One of the main beams in mid ship bowed and cracked, causing great distress, until a screw jack brought by the passengers was used to raise the beam and the carpenter supported it with a post and other timber.

John Howland, ancestor of former President George Bush, [and later President George W. Bush] was nearly lost in one of the storms.

The exhausting voyage took 66 days and claimed 2 lives. However, they still arrived with 102 souls, since a boy, "Oceanus Hopkins", was born at sea in route, and another, "Peregrine White", was born as the ship anchored at Cape Cod.

The Pilgrims had planned to settle somewhere near the Hudson River, in the area of their grant from the Virginia Company of London (aka. London Company), but the LORD in his providence sent winds that urged the Mayflower north, where they sighted Cape Cod, November 9th (O.S.).

"Being thus arrived in a good harbor and brought safe to land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of heaven, who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries thereof, again to set their feet on the firm and stable earth, their proper element." (--William Bradford)

After anchoring inside the tip of Cape Cod (in Provincetown harbor) The Mayflower Compact, "the first plan for a self-determining government in America", was drawn up and signed by 41 men aboard the Mayflower on

November 11th, 1620 (O.S.).

This agreement was thought necessary because there were rumors that some of the non-Separatists, called "Strangers," among the passengers would defy the Pilgrims if they landed in a place other than that specified in the land grant they had received from the London Company.

The compact became the basis of a Body Politick (temporary government) in the Plymouth Colony. After it was signed, the Pilgrims elected John Carver as their first governor. They were to meet in a yearly "General Court to elect the governor and assistants, enact laws, and levy taxes."

Being weary of life aboard ship, the Pilgrims were anxious to explore the country for a place to settle down. During the weeks that followed, one exploring party working its way around Cape Cod Bay had to take refuge on an island in Plymouth harbor during a blinding snow storm.

On December 11th (O.S.), they landed at Plymouth where there was some cleared land, a stream with clear pure water, and a high hill that could be fortified. There had previously been a (Native American) Indian village there, but a plague in 1617 had wiped them out.

Several days later, on December 16th (O.S.), the Mayflower sailed across to the rocky western shore of Cape Cod Bay in southeastern Massachusetts, and dropped anchor in Plymouth Harbor.

Although Christopher Jones, the captain of the Mayflower had previously threatened to leave the Pilgrims unless they quickly found a place to land, he remained, with his ship, at Plymouth during that devasting first winter of 1620-21, during which about half of the colonists died. (After the winter was past in 1621, the Mayflower finally departed from Plymouth on April 5th (O.S.), and returned to England.)

"Plymouth Colony and the Pilgrims have become for all Americans a lesson of how a people with little more than courage, perseverance, and hard work could build themselves a home in a hostile world. The Pilgrims laid the basis for the town meeting form of government, and for the Congregational Church."

Life in the New World was not easy. Lack of proper food, exhausting work, and extreme weather lowered their resistance to sickness, and there was much suffering and death. They lost 52 members, including their governor John Carver. Thirteen of the twenty-four heads of families died, as well as fourteen of the eighteen mothers. By spring only a few able-bodied men and boys were left to plant crops.

Even these men, who had been town laborers in Holland for years, might have been lost if it had not been for the help (by the providence of God) of two Indians, Samoset and Squanto, who had been a captive on an English vessel and had learned English. As the story goes, "One spring morning, an Indian walked into the little village, and introduced himself to the startled people as Samoset.

Two weeks later he returned with Squanto. The two Indians introduced the Pilgrims to Massasoit, the sachem, or chief, of the Wampanoag tribe that controlled all southeastern Massachusetts. An exchange of gifts and hospitality resulted in a peace that lasted over 50 years. The Pilgrims, under Squanto's direction, caught "alewives" (a fish in the herring family) and used them as fertilizer in planting corn, pumpkins, and beans. They hunted and fished for food." (--World Book Ency.)

Another factor in the survival of the Plymouth Colony was the leadership of William Bradford, who served as governor for 30 years (yearly elections,) and combined firmness with both tact and common sense. (He and several other leaders later assumed the total debt of the colonists to the London backers, and then divided the land and goods equally among the inhabitants.)

Governor Bradford declared a special celebration. The Pilgrims invited their Indian friends to join them in a three-day festival in the Autumn of 1621 in what we now call the first Thanksgiving.